Here I acknowledge the plural of histories because, while a constructed science with rigid methodologies, every community, state, nation, and group, has different ways of recounting the past. And yet, despite their different approaches to the science of historical analysis, they’ve always managed to neglect the presence and role of Muslim women in their accounts. This misguided recounting of history can be attributed to a number of factors but the most obvious are patriarchy and racism and the brutal combination of the two that is paramount to how our stories are told in the West.

And of course, that is the premise of Muslim Women You Should Know - to debunk the (very intentionally) racist and patriarchal and Islamophobic tellings of history that have been presented to so many of us as singular. The women below prove that our understanding of history as being shaped by ruthless, powerful men is anything but the truth because after all, women can be just as ruthless.

Rehendhi Khadeejah

Al-Sultana Khadeejah Sri Radha Abaarana Mahaa Rehendhi, or Rehendhi Khadeejah, was the Sultana of the Maldives from 1347 to 1379 over three separate reigns. Born the eldest daughter to Omar I, her brother ascended to the throne after their father’s death. In 1347, she ordered him assassinated, clearing her path to the throne and beginning her first reign as the Sultana of the Maldives under the Theemuge Dynasty. Ibn Battuta, a famed Tunisian explorer wrote of her first reign:

“The only survivors from the ruling house were his three sisters ... . The inhabitants of the Maldive islands preferred for sovereign Khadija and she was the wife of their orator (khatib) Jamal-ud-din who became vezir. He took over the reign of power . . . but orders were issued in the name of Khadija only.”

Her first reign ended in 1363 when she was overthrown by her husband and political advisor, Muhammad el-Jameel but shortly after he ascended the throne, Khadeeja had him assassinated and reclaimed the throne. Her second reign lasted for 10 years until 1373, when her second husband, Abdullah I, deposed her. Three years after she was deposed, Khadeejah again ordered the assassination of her husband and returned to power for her third and final reign, which lasted until her death in 1379.

Succeeded by her sister, Raadhafathi, Rehendhi Khadeejah remains one of the most popular historical figures in the Maldives. Stories of the queen who reigned for over 30 years and outmaneuvered the men who dared take the throne from her are passed down through generations while feminist movements have sought inspiration in her strength.

Puteri Saadong

Puteri Saadong was the adopted daughter of Siti Wan Kembang, or Che Siti, the ruler of the entire east coast of the Malay peninsula and the queen of Negeri Serendah Sekebun Bunga (Kingdom of Floral Gardens). In 1663, she became Raja of Jembal and was installed as the Raja of Kelantan in 1667 by her mother, after she ‘disappeared’ into a mystical world, reappearing from time to time. Puteri Saadong married her cousin, Raja Abdullah bin al-Marhum Sultan Samiruddin, the Raja of Kelantan-Selantan when she was fifteen years old. Shortly after their marriage and four years into her reign, she was kidnapped by the Siamese army. To save her husband’s life, she became the concubine of King Narai of Siam. Her husband, left behind in Kelantan, vowed to wait for his wife to return and to never remarry.

While imprisoned, the King of Siam promised Puteri Saadong her freedom if she managed to heal his illness, which she did. Now free, she returned home to her husband only to find that Raja Abdullah had remarried. Seeing her husband and his new wife, she fell into a rage, killing her husband with her gold hairpin, which women often carried as their weapons as it was illegal at the time for women to possess “ordinary weapons”. After the murder, Puteri Saadong left the palace in Bukit Marak, disappearing for good.

Nur Jahan

Nur Jahan was born Mehr un Nissa on 31 May 1577 into a Persian noble family. Shortly before her birth, her father suffered a reversal of fortunes and the family was forced to migrate to India, where the court of Emperor Akbar was growing as the region’s center of the trade industry and culture. They were robbed along the route, arriving in Kandahar impoverished and destitute, where they were met Malik Masud, a wealthy merchant who led caravans and who found Mehr-un-Nissa’s father a position serving the Emperor Akbar. Nur Jahan was born shortly after their arrival in Kandahar and the family, recognizing the birth of the child as a change in their fate, named her Mehr-un-Nissa (Sun Among Women).

With her father’s successful career working for the Emperor, Nur Jahan was given the best possible education, learning Arabic, Persian, literature, music and dance. When she was 17, she married Sher Afgan Khan, a courtier and soldier, who was killed in 1607 after rumors spread that he refused to obey summons from the Governor of Bengal. After his death in 1607, she, along with her daughter Ladli Begum, were summoned to court to serve Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, one of the wives of the late Emperor Akbar, in the court of Jahangir. She served the Dowager Empress for four years, becoming a favorite of the Empress.

“This Begum [Ruqaiya] conceived a great affection for Mehr-un-Nissa [Nur Jahan]; she loved her more than others and always kept her in her company.” - Pieter van den Broecke

In 1611, Mehr un Nissa met Emperor Jahangir during a celebration of Nowruz in the palace’s bazaar. He proposed to her there and they married that same year, giving her the title Nur Mahal (light of the palace), later changed to Nur Jahan (light of the world). Although she was the emperor’s twentieth wife, his affection for her gave her a significant amount of power and many in the court considered her to be the de facto leader and the real force behind the Mughal throne during the early 17th century.

When Jahangir died in 1627, a political crisis engulfed the court as the Emperor had not yet named an heir. A war of succession broke out between Prince Khurram and Prince Shahryar, the two remaining (and competent) sons of Jahangir. Nur Jahan sided with Shahryar, her son in law, who she believed she could easily manipulate and whose accession to the throne would make her daughter, Ladli Begum, Empress. But in 1628, with the help of Nur Jahan’s brother Asaf Khan, Prince Khurram emerged victorious, becoming Shah Jahan, new Mughal emperor.

Under the new Emperor Shah Jahan’s orders, her brother placed her and her daughter under house arrest in a mansion in Lahore where she would spend the rest of her days. She spent the years before her death building Itmad-ud-daulah, a mausoleum for her father that served as the architectural inspiration for the Taj Mahal and designing her own tomb, where she would rest after her death on 16 December 1675.

Shajar al-Durr was of Turkish or Armenian descent who, at a young age, was purchased as a slave by As-Salih Ayyub, who would eventually become Sultan of Egypt in 1240. She gave birth to their son, Khalil later that year and As-Salih and Shajar al-Durr were married shortly after the birth. As-Salih Ayyub passed away in 1249 but because the empire was under attack by French crusaders and no successor had been named, his death was concealed for over a year.

During this time, Shajar al-Durr attempted to consolidate power and build support for her succession to her husband’s throne but her plans were thwarted by the arrival of her late husband’s son, Turanshah, who claimed his father’s throne. Wary of Shajar al-Durr’s power and influence in the court, Turanshah began replacing his father’s court with his own followers, who had accompanied him from Hasankeyf (part of modern Turkey). Enraged by this, her Mamluk allies assassinated Turanshah and Shajar al-Durr was installed as the new monarch in 1250.

Upon her ascent to the throne she took on a number of titles, including Malikat al-Muslimin, or Queen of the Muslims. Her name was mentioned in Friday prayers and coins were minted with her titles and spread throughout the sultanate. As news spread about Shajar al-Durr’s ascent to the throne, areas of the kingdom, including Damascus and Baghdad, refused to recognize her as the legitimate heir to the throne and threatened rebellion against Cairo.

In an effort to appease them and maintain peace throughout the kingdom, Shajar al-Durr abdicated the throne and married Izz al-Din Aybak, who became Sultan in place of his wife. Their marriage was marked by suspicion, as Shajar al-Durr continued to act as the sole ruler of Egypt, conducting state affairs and managing, many of which she kept secret from Aybak. Aybak, searching for legitimacy as Sultan, decided to marry the daughter of the Ayyubid emir, which would align him with a powerful emir. Upon learning of this betrayal, Shajar al-Durr ordered Aybak’s servants to murder him while he was bathing. Initially, they claimed that he had died suddenly in the night but under torture, the servants admitted to the killing. Shajar al-Durr was arrested by her husband’s allies, brought to the Red Tower, where she was tortured and beaten to death. Her body lay outside in a moat for three days before she was eventually buried in a tomb, whose architectural features, as did the woman who rests there, influenced future Mamluk architecture

Learn More

• The Forgotten Queens of Islam | Fatema Mernissi

• Maldivian Nobility: Khadijah of the Maldives, Davud of the Maldives, Salis of the Maldives, Yoosuf I of the Maldives

• Puteri Saadong: The Warrior Queen | Ninot Aziz

• Empress: The Astonishing Reign of Nur Jahan | Ruby Lal

• Nur Jahan: Empress of Mughal India | Ellison Banks Findly

• Tree of Pearls: The Extraordinary Architectural Patronage of the 13th Century Egyptian Slave Queen Shajar al-Durr | Fairchild Ruggles

• A History of the Muslim World since 1260: The Making of a Global World | Vernon Egger

Raden Adjeng Kartini

Raden Adjeng Kartini: (1879 - 1904, Jepara, Central Java) was a prominent women’s rights advocate and proponent of girls’ education. Born into an aristocratic Javanese family, her father was the Regency Chief of her hometown, Jepara. She attended a Dutch language until she was 12 years old, when she entered into pingit (seclusion) at home to prepare her for marriage. During pingit, Kartini continued to study Dutch, practicing with Dutch pen pals and reading Dutch language books, newspapers, and European magazines. The letters she exchanged with her penpals were eventually published after her death, offering great insight into her struggle for independence from her family and patriarchal societal expectations.

She also read feminist publications, including those of Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati, an Indian Christian missionary and social reformer. Reflecting on these readings, she said

“So it’s not only white women who are able to take care of themselves-a brown woman can make herself free and independent too”

Influenced by these writings, Kartini began advocating for improved conditions of indigenous Indonesian women and the total emancipation of women across the country. In letters to her friends, she wrote of her desire to pursue an education and her critical views on the social conditions of indigenous Indonesian women, including the impact that arranged marriage and polygamy had on the rights of Javanese women and girls. She was critical of Javanese culture’s tendency to impose obstacles on women’s independence and expressed her unhappiness with the cultural traditions that prevented women from pursuing an education, which she believed was critical for one’s self-development. She wanted to continue her studies in the Netherlands or in Batavia (now Jakarta) but her plans were thwarted by her father, who opposed additional schooling for her.

When she was 24 years old, she married Joyodiningrat, a Regency Chief of Rembang. It was an arranged marriage and Kartini became the chief’s third wife. Although initially hesitant about the marriage, Kartini eventually accepted the proposal on the condition that she could continue her education and follow her aspirations to establish a women’s school. The following year in 1904, just days after giving birth to her first and only child, Raden Mas Singgih, Kartini died on September 13th at the age of 25. Though she lived for a short time, her legacy continues to impact Indonesia to this day. In 1964, 21 April was declared Kartini day and schools across the country have been named for her.

Hajjah Rangkayo Rasuna Said

Hajjah Rangkayo Rasuna Said (1910 - 1965, Maninjau) was a campaigner for Indonesian independence and women’s rights activist in Dutch-occupied Indonesia (Dutch East Indies). At just 13, she became a teacher’s assistant at Dinah Putri school but after an earthquake destroyed the school, Rasuna began studying political and religious activism, attending lectures on nationalism and Indonesian independence.

In 1926, she joined the Sarekat Rakyat (Peoples Union), a communist affiliated organization, before it was dissolved and she joined Persatuan Muslim Indonesia (Union of Indonesian Muslims), or Permi, an Islamic-nationalism political party, where she quickly rose to a leadership position. In 1931, she returned to Dinah Putri to teach but was eventually asked to resign because she was teaching political subjects to her students, which was forbidden by the school administration.

After leaving Dinah Putri, Rasuna began campaigning for independence from the Dutch, giving speeches across Indonesia calling for an end to colonialism. In a 1932 speech entitled “Steps to the Independence of the People in a Greater Indonesia”, she condemned the impact of Dutch colonialism on the Indonesians, referencing the Qur’an’s condemnation of colonialism. Weeks later, she repeated the claim in a separate speech, stating the Qur’an called imperialism the enemy of Islam. After the speech she was arrested and charged with ‘Speekdelict’, or speaking offense, the first Indonesian woman to receive this charge. Her trial and subsequent 15 month prison sentence were widely reported on, bringing her into the national spotlight. Letters she shared while on trial and imprisoned brought attention to her case and widespread support for the independence movement. In one letter sent to the Permi board she wrote,

“We struggle with conviction! If we win in our struggle, we will get two benefits. First, Indonesia will be free; second, paradise as promised by God.”

In 1934, after her release from prison, she returned to Padang, studying at a teacher training college and working as a journalist, writing articles criticizing Dutch colonialism. Rasuna was arrested once again by the Japanese during their occupation of Indonesia but was released shortly after because the authorities feared the growing public discontent following her arrest.

After Indonesian independence in 1945, she was actively involved in building the new republic, serving as head of the women’s section of the National Defense Front, a member of the Sumatra Representative Council, and a member of the Indonesian Supreme Advisory Council in 1959, which she served on until her death in 1965 of breast cancer. She is buried in Kalibata Heroes Cemetery, a military cemetery in South Jakarta for senior Indonesian government officials.

Suwarsih Djojopuspito

Suwarsih Djojopuspito (1912 - 1977, Yogyakarta) is regarded as one of the most important feminist writers in Indonesia. Her father, a merchant, firmly believed in equality for his children so she and her sisters were enrolled at the Kartini School, named after Raden Ajeng Kartini. Suwarsih eventually enrolled in a teacher training school in Surabaya when she was 16 years old, graduating from the school in 1930. Upon completing her studies, she began teaching at a “wild school”, which used a European style of education, but because it did not take government funding, could use a nationalist-aligned curriculum to educate students.

In the late 1930s, still working as a schoolteacher in a wild school, she began publishing essays advocating for a number of progressive causes, including the abolition of polygamy. She also wrote semi autobiographical pieces, like Marjanah and Buiten het gareel, highlighting her work at the “wild schools”, the teachers’ commitment to Sukarno’s nationalist movement, and their struggles with society exclusion.Many of the pieces were written and published in Dutch (primarily because so many publishing companies refused to publish pieces in her native Sundanese), becoming some of the select few novels written in Dutch by Indonesians.

After Indonesian independence in 1949, Suwarsih continued to write and publish her books through Balai Pustaka, the state owned publisher of Indonesia, which had once rejected her manuscripts for their nationalist themes and the Sundanese language they were originally drafted in. The Indonesian translation of her book, Buiten het gareel, was published by Balai Pustaka in 1975, under the title Manusia Bebas (Free People). Two years after Manusia Bebas was published, Suwarsih passed away at the age of 65. Her final novel, Maryati, was published posthumously in 1982 and tells the story of a Dutch-educated Indonesian schoolgirl.

Umi Sardjono

Umi Sardjono (1923 - 2011, Salatiga Java) was a decolonial feminist activist in Dutch-occupied Indonesia (Dutch East Indies). Originally a member of Kepanduan Bangsa Indonesia, after reading Kartini’s work Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang, she became convinced a more radical approach was necessary to defeat colonialism, joining the Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia party, the underground communist movement.

When Japan invaded Dutch-occupied Indonesia, she continued working with the Anti-Fascist Indonesian People’s Freedom Forces before she was arrested and imprisoned for her resistance work. After her release, four days after Japan surrendered, she rejoined the resistance movement, working to stop the Dutch effort to recolonize Indonesia and to foster women’s participation in the movement for independence.

In 1950, Sardjono, along with 6 other women’s rights activists, founded Gerakan Wanita Sadar (Movement for Politically Aware Women), which sought to reform marriage law in the country and advocate for women’s and worker’s rights. During the 1954 conference, where Sardjono was elected to lead the organization, a new name was selected for the organization - Gerakan Wanita Indonesia (Indonesian Women’s Movement), or Gerwani, to reflect an expansion of their work. While Gerwani was non-political, they were closely aligned with the Parti Komunis Indonesia (PKI), and subscribed to their understanding that gender, and women’s issues, were intertwined with nation-building and inseparable from the socialist vision of Indonesia that the party worked towards. Under this mandate, Gerwani organized around a range of social issues, including girls’ education, polygamy and domestic violence, political participation and workplace rights for women, and economic independence for women.

In 1965, Sardjono and fellow members of Gerwani were falsely accused of participating in an alleged “coup d’etat”, which saw 6 Indonesian generals killed, initiating the military takeover of Sukarno’s leftist government. The military accused members of Gerwani, most likely because of their ties to the PKI, of mutilating the corpses and dancing nude over their bodies, shifting public opinion against Gerwani, and the previously popular communist movement. Under Suharto’s new military regime, Sardjono was imprisoned and sent to one of the many concentration camps for communist and leftist activists. During the government’s communist purge, largely considered a genocide forgotten by the world, an estimated 1,000,000 Indonesians who were communists or affiliated with the movement were murdered and tens of thousands more arbitrarily detained. In 1979, after 15 years in prison she was eventually released but continued to face the repercussions of the military’s false narrative about Gerwani.

She died on March 11, 2011 with her legacy as a women’s rights activist and fighter for Indonesian independence largely unknown.

Learn more

• Letters of a Javanese Princess | Raden Adjeng Kartini

• Kartini: The Complete Writings, 1898 - 1904 | Raden Adjeng Kartini

• The Killing Season | Robert Cowley

• Lubang Buaya: Myth, Misogyny, and Massacre | Steven Drakeley

• Feminist Voice in the Works of Indonesian Early Woman Writers: Reading Novels and Short Stories by Suwarsih Djojopuspito | Aquarini Priyatna

• Rasuna Said: Lioness of the Indonesian Independence Movement | Sally White

• Umi Sardjono and the Quest to Build a New Society for Indonesian Women in the Palgrave Handbook of Community Women Activists| Katharine McGregor & Ruth Indiah Rahayu

• Against the Grain | Suwarsih Djojopuspito

Muslim Women You Should Know started as a series on an existing personal project, Femislay. At the time, the project was a reflection of the capacity I had to learn, understand, and contemplate feminism, driven of course by my identities: white, western, heterosexual, cisgender, and non-religious. In short, my understanding of feminism and what it means to be an empowered, vibrant, and passionate feminist was limited to the singular narrative the West pushes upon those who identify as a feminist. A narrative that excludes the majority of women across the world, including Muslim women in all their diversity.

In exploring these “Muslim women you should know”, my understanding of feminism has of course expanded, as has my understanding of empowerment, success, creativity, intellect, collective action, community care, and of course, the power of faith to actively improve one’s own life and in doing so, if we’re blessed enough, the lives of those around us. This understanding has continued to expand, and will Insyaallah continue to do so for the remainder of my life. Eventually the series became its own project, chartering its own path, influenced by the will, time, energy, and commitment (or lack thereof) that I channeled into it. In 2020, I created an Instagram page for the project and in 2021, a website, which is live but remains unupdated, unlike the constant, nagging voice in my head screaming at me to focus on it

As I have done my best to keep this project alive, I have come to realize that I do believe that I am devoted to the ideas behind what led me to create the project in the first place. But as Mary Oliver says, “attention is the beginning of devotion” and to demonstrate this devotion, I must give it my attention.

So here goes a sudden burst of attention (please pray for me that it doesn’t fizzle out and if it does, call me out on my BS when I say “I am devoted to sharing with the world the stories of the women our history books never taught us about”).

Here goes a reiteration of my journey to explore the narratives of empowerment and the diversity of Muslim women, a basic right of every individual but in the context of feminism, often only granted to Western women.

Here goes a (re)commitment to learning about (and unlearning from) the stories of the women we never learned about in your history class. The women who changed the world. The women who created, fought, led, wrote, prayed, advocated, and served. The women that both the Western and Islamic patriarchal tellings of history have left behind. The Muslim Women You Should Know.